sci.polymers FAQ
This FAQ was originally compiled by Jim Coffey with contributions from readers of sci.polymers.
It is currently maintained by Steve Spanoudis (
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) and Greg Koski (
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).
Hello everyone. This is the first draft of the new FAQ. There are some changes in structure, a few deletions, and lots of additions. Due to the size we will be moving some large sections (s.13 for example) into appendicies. If anyone has difficulty getting this through their newsreader gateway because of file length, we'll pare it into multiple parts. We've tried to incorporate everyones comments, but may have missed some. Send corrections to Steve. Ciao
Steve and Greg
Contents:
(0) Where to find this FAQ
A. Polymer Basics
- (1) What is a "Polymer"
- (2) Abbreviations for Common Polymers
- (3) Polymer Properties
- (4) Classification of Polymers
- (5) Processing methods for Polymers
- (6) Recycling of Polymers
B. Where to find Polymer Information on the Net
- (7) WWW sites
- (8) FTP archives
C. General Information
- (9) Calendar
- (10) Professional Organizations
- (11) University Degree Programs
- (12) Publications of Interest on Polymers
- (13) Commercial Polymer producers
D. References
- (14) Books on Polymers and Polymer Processing
(0) Where to find this FAQ
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(1) What is a "Polymer"
The word Polymer comes from the Greek "poly" meaning many, and "meros", parts or units. A polymer is a group of many units. You combine many monomers (one unit) to create a polymer.
Polymer is often used as a synonym for "plastic", but many biological and inorganic molecules are also polymeric. All plastics are polymers, but not all polymers are plastics. Plastic actually refers to the way a material melts and flows.
Commercial polymers are formed through chemical reactions in large vessels under heat and pressure. Other ingredients are added to control how the polymer is formed and to produce the proper molecular length and desired properties. This chemical process is called "polymerization".
A homopolymer results from polymerizing only one kind of monomer. A copolymer results from using different monomers. Homopolymers have the same repeating unit while copolymers (which can be random, block, or graft) can vary have different numbers of repeating units. A terpolymer results from using three different monomers.
(2) Abbreviations for Common Polymers:
Polymers are commonly refered to by both their names and abbreviations. Commercial polymers are also frequently refered to by the trade names of their manufacturer.
- ABS - acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer
- BMC - bulk molding compound
- EVA - ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer
- LCP - liquid crystal polymer
- PA - polyamide, commonly called nylon
- PAN - polyacrylonitrile
- PAS - polyarylsulfone
- PBD - polybutadine
- PBT - polybutadiene terephthalate
- PC - polycarbonate
- PE - polyethylene see also:
- HDPE - high density PE
- LDPE - low density PE
- LLDPE - linear low density PE
- VLDPE - very low density PE
- HMW-HDPE - high molecular weight HDPE
- UHMWPE - ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene
- PEEK - polyetheretherketone
- PEK - polyetherketone
- PEI - polyetherimide
- PES - polyethersulfone
- PET - polyethylene terephthalate
- PET-G - glycol modified PET
- PI - polyisoprene
- PS-b-PI - polystyrene/polyisoprene block copolymer
- PI - polyimide
- PK - polyketone
- PMMA - polymethyl methacrylate, commonly called acrylic
- PMP - polymethylpentene
- POM - polyoxymethylene, commonly called acetal
- PP - polypropylene, subdivided as:
- homopolymer, random, impact and block copolymers
- PPA - polyphthalamide
- PPO/PPE - polyphenylene oxide, polyphenylene ether
- PPS - polyphenylene sulfide
- PS - polystyrene
- EPS - expanded polystyrene
- HIPS - high impact polystyrene
- PSO,PSU - polysulfone
- PTFE - polytetrefluoroethylene
- PU,PUR - polyurethane
- PVA - polyvinyl alcohol
- PVC - polyvinylchloride, commonly refered to as vinyl
- RUBBER
- EPR - ethylene propylene rubber
- SBR - styrene butadiene rubber
- EPDM - ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber
- SAN - styrene acrylonitrile copolymer
- SI - silicone
- SMC - sheet molding compound
- TPE - thermoplastic elastomer
- UF - urea formaldehyde
(http://www.lexmark.com/ptc/tradname.html has a list of polymer abbreviations and tradenames)
(3) Polymer Properties
Polymers are characterized in many ways - by chemical or physical structure, by strength or thermal performance, by optical or electrical properties, etc.
Most textbooks will give qualitative and some quantitative data on polymer properties. Properties can vary widely however, between manufacturers, for different performance grades, due to additives and reinforcements, or other reasons. For more precise data, contact a representative from a polymer producer, compounder, or distributor for a spec sheet on a particular material and grade. Often grades are offered to suit the needs of specific types of applications.
Properties of interest typically include:
- Physical Properties
- Specific Gravity
- Heat Capacity
- Mold Shrinkage
- Mechanical Properties
- Strength (Tensile and Flexural)
- Modulus (Tensile and Flexural)
- Elongation
- Hardness
- Impact Resistance
- Thermal Properties
- Heat Deflection Temperature
- VICAT Softening Temperature
- Glass Transition Temp
- Thermal Conductivity
- Thermal Expansion
- Processing Characteristics
- Melt Flow Index
- Melting Point, No-flow Temp
- Shear Rate/Viscosity Relation
- Compressibility (Pressure/Volume/Temperature Relation)
- Optical Properties
- Light Transmission
- Haze
- Refractive Index
- Electrical Properties
- Surface and Volume Resistivity
- Dielectric Constant
- Dielectric Strength
- Dissipation Factor
- Breakdown Voltage
- Environmental Properties
- Chemical Resistance
- UV Resistance
- Flame Resistance (UL Rating)
- Oxygen Index
- Water Absorption
- Morphology
- Crystallinity
- Orientation
- Composition (Neat, Blended, Filled)
(http://www.lexmark.com/ptc/book6.html has a brief overview of properties for a number of commonly used polymers)(Property sheets for some specific polymers are available online at Phoenix http://www.polymers.com/phoenix/productg.html and at General Electric http://www.ge.com/gep/nav_prd.html)
(4) Classificaton of Polymers
There are many ways in which polymer properties or behavior are classified to make general descriptions and understanding easier. Some common classificatons are:
Thermoplastic vs. Thermoset:
Thermoplastics can be heated and formed, then re-heated and re-formed repeatedly. The shape of the polymer molecules is generally linear, or slightly branched, allowing them to flow under pressure when heated above the effective melting point.
Thermosets undergo a chemical as well as a phase change when they are heated. Their molecules form a three-dimensional cross-linked network. Once they are heated and formed they can not be reprocessed - the three- dimensional molecules can not be made to flow under pressure when heated.
Amorphous vs Crystalline:
Polymers with nearly linear structure, which have simple backbones, tend tend to be flexible and fold up to form very tightly packed and ordered areas called crystals. Levels of crystallinity can vary from zero to near 100%. Time and temperature during processing influence the degree of crystallinity. Crystalline polymers include: polyethylene, polypropylene, acetals, nylons, most thermoplastic polyesters, and in some cases polyvinyl chloride. Crystalline polymers have higher shrinkage, are generally opaque or translucent, good to excellent chemical resistance, low friction, good to excellent wear resistance.
Polymers with bulkier molecular chains or large branches or functional groups tend to be stiffer and will not fold up tight enough to form crystals. These polymers are referred to as "amorphous" and include: polystyrene, polycarbonate, acrylic, ABS, SAN, and polysulfone. Amorphous polymers have low shrinkage, good transparency, gradual softening when heated (no melting point), average to poor chemical resistance, high friction, and average to low wear resistance.
Addition vs. Condensation:
Polymers such as nylons, acetals, and polyesters are made by condensation or step-reaction polymerization where small molecules (monomers) of two different chemicals combine to form chains of alternating chemical groups. The length of molecules is determined by the number of active chain ends available to react with more monomer or the active ends of other molecules.
Polymers such as polyethylene, polystyrene, acrylic, and polyvinyl chloride are made by addition or chain-reaction polymerization where only one monomer species is used. The reaction is begun by an initiator which activates monomer molecules by the breaking a double bond between atoms and creating two bonding sites. These sites quickly react with sites on two other monomer molecules and so on. This continues until the initiator is used up and the reaction stops. The length of molecules is determined by the number of monomer molecules which can attach to a chain before the initiator is consumed and all molecules with initated bonding sites have reacted.
Commodity, Engineering, High Performance:
Another common classification of plastics is "commodity" versus "engineering". Commodity polymers have relatively low physical properties. They are used for consumer products which require low cost, disposability, packaging or container related, low stress and low temperature resistance, limited product life, and high volume production. (e.g. PE, PS, PP)
Engineering polymers have properties towards the high end of the spectrum. Strength and thermal resistance are the most significant. Their price may range from two to ten times as much as a commodity polymer. They are used in: housings, brackets, load bearing members, machine enclosures, and applications requiring wear resistance, long life expectency, flame resistance, and the ability to endure cyclic stress loading. (e.g. PC, POM, PBT)
The properties of high performance polymers are at the highest end of the spectrum, generally with very high strength and thermal resistance. They tend to be very expensive, priced above most engineering polymers. They are used in high temperature, high stress applications, in harsh environments, and low to medium volume production. (e.g. PEEK, PEI, LCP)
(5) Processing Methods for Polymers
There are many processing methods for polymers. Commercial processing equipment can range from a few thousand dollars to many millions of dollars.
In addition to the equipment itself, tooling is generally required to make a particular shape.
Molding
- Compression Molding
- Transfer Molding
- Injection Molding
- Gas Assisted Injection Molding (GAIN)
- Reaction Injection Molding (RIM/SRIM)
- Injection/Compression Molding
- Blow Molding
- Extrusion Blow Molding
- Injection Blow Molding
- Injection Stretch Blow Molding
- Rotational Molding
Extrusion
- Rod, Pipe, Sheet, Profile Extrusion
- Coextrusion
- Extruded/Blown Film
- Extruded Foam
- Pultrusion
Casting
- Cast Film
- Cast Shape
- Vacuum Casting
- Lay-Up
Forming
- Vacuforming
- Thermoforming
- Pressure Forming
Calendering
Coating
- Powder Coating
- Dispersion Coating
- Extrusion Coating and Laminating
- Spray Coating
- Dip Coating
Spinning
- Fiber Spinning
- Melt Blown Nonwoven Fiber
Many processing methods have their own Special Interest Group as a subdivision of the SPE.
(A good textbook for understanding different processing methods is the Plastic Engineering Handbook by SPI, Michael L. Berrins, Ed. (Van Nostran Reinhold, pub, c 1991, 845p.) ISBN 0-442-31799-9, LCCCN 90-22784)
(6) Recycling
Most thermoplastic polymers can be recycled - that is converted from their initial use as a consumer, business, or industrial product, back into a raw material from which some other product can be manufactured. Recycled materials are often classified as Post-Industrial and Post-Consumer. Post-Industrial includes such things as manufacturing scrap, containers and packaging. Post-Consumer is basically any product, container, packaging, etc. that has passed through the hands of a consumer, e.g. plastics bags, beverage containers, carpeting, home appliances, toys, etc.
Thermoset polymers can only be recycled for use as an inert filler (something to take up space) in another material.
The keys to effective recycling are:
- an efficient infrastructure for collecting used materials
- ease of separation and low levels of contamination
- an established market for reprocessing/reusing the materials
There are many arguments whether there is not enough of a market for recycled materials to create the proper recycling infrastructure, or not a consistent supply of recycled material to encourage the growth of a market. In the case of the US paper industry, decreasing availability of virgin wood pulp rapidly created a profitable market for recycled paper.
The contamination issue is very important for plastics. While oil, grease, paper labels, glue, etc. will burn off when glass or metals are recycled, they become contaminants and degrade thermoplastics during reprocessing.
There are threee versions of the recycling logo. The original one was three arrows chasing each other in the shape of a triangle, the second was just a triangle, and the current one is a pair of angle brackets.
< 1 >
The number inside the triangle or brackets indicates the material used in the part.
There are six specific categories, and a generic seventh for "other". In the case of "other" it is good form to put the material name under the recycling logo.
| SYMBOL |
MATERIAL |
| 1 |
PET (polyethylene terphthalate) - beverage containers (2-liter soda bottles), boil-in food pouches, processed meat packages, etc. |
| 2 |
HDPE (high density polyethylene) - milk bottles, detergent bottles, oil bottles, toys, plastic bags |
| 3 |
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) - food wrap, vegetable oil bottles, blister packaging |
| 4 |
LDPE (low density polyethylene) - shrink-wrap, plastic bags, garment bags |
| 5 |
PP (polypropylene) - margarine and yogurt containers, grocery bags, caps for containers, carpet fiber, food wrap, |
| 6 |
PS (polystyrene) - plastic utensils, clothes hangars, foam cups and plates |
| 7 |
Other (all other polymers and polymer blends) including polycarbonate, ABS, PPO/PPE |
(7) Polymer Resources on the Net - Selected World Wide Web Sites
- http://eetsg22.bd.psu.edu
- Plastics Engineering Technology at Penn State U. - Erie
- http://eetsg22.bd.psu.edu/www.html
- Penn State's Polymers Web site listing
- http://xenoy.mae.cornell.edu/
- CIMP Injection Molding Program at Cornell U.
- http://www.stm.tudelft.nl/tms/tmshome.html
- Department of Polymer Technology at Delft U.
- http://www.polymers.com/
- Polylinks maintained by Softweb Technologies
- http://www.lexmark.com/ptc/ptc.html
- Plastics Technology Center at Lexmark International Inc.
- http://www.polysort.com/
- Polymer Resource Network page at U. of Akron
- http://www.polysort.com/akron.html
- Polymer Information Center at U. of Akron
- http://lcwww.phys.cwru.edu
- Liquid Crystal self-study guide at Case Western
- http://www.umr.edu/~jstoffer
- University of Missouri at Rolla
- http://cps-www.bu.edu/
- Boston U's Center for Polymer Studies
- http://www.worldserver.pipex.com/moldflow/usergroup/na_mfug.html
- Moldflow Users Group home page
- http://www.usm.edu/usmhburg/sci_tech/psrc/dps-menu.html
- The U. of Southern Mississippi's Dept. of Polymer Science
- http://www.polymers.com/phoenix.html
- Phoenix Polymers
- http://www.ge.com/gep/homepage.html
- GE Plastics Home Page
- http://www.idesinc.com/pd3
- SPE Product Design and Development Division PD3 Home Page
(9) Calendar
Major events in the Polymer/Plastics Industry:
ANTEC Annual Technical Conference of the SPE Held in May each year
- RETEC
- Regional Technical Conference
- Frequently held throughout the year in different locations
- Generally focus on a special interest topic
- K-Show
- Kunststoffe und Kautschuk - the largest plastics trade show and conference in the world
- Held in October/November every three years in Dusseldorf, Germany
- Next show is October 5-12, 1995, contact 312-781-5180 for more information
- NPE
- National Plastics Exposition - the largest US plastics trade show and conference, sponsored by SPI
- Held in June every three years in Chicago
- Next show is in June of 1997
- Plastics USA
- Held in September in Chicago in the years between NPE & K
- Trade show and conference, sponsored by SPI
- Next show is September 12-15, 1995, contact 202-371-5235 for more information
- NDES
- National Design Engineering Show, sponsored by NAM
- Held annually in Chicago in March during National manufacturing Week
(10) Professional and Industry Organizations
- SPE
- Society of Plastics Engineers
- 14 Fairfield Drive, Brookfield, CT 06804
- Phone 203-775-0471 Fax 203-775-8490
- SPI
- Society of the Plastics Industry
- 1275 K Street NW, Suite 400
- Washington D.C. 20005
- Phone 202-371-5200 Fax 202-371-1022
- ACS
- American Chemical Society
- Division of Polymer Chemistry
- Division of Polymer Materials Science and Engineering
- APC
- American Plastics Council
- PINZ
- Plastics Institute of New Zealand
- P.O.Box 76378, Manakau City, Auckland, New Zealand.
- Phone +64 9 262 3773
- CANZ
- Composites Association of New Zealand
- 5 Balmacewen Road, Dunedin, New Zealand.
- Phone +64 3 467 2514.
- PIA
- Plastics Industry Association [Australia]
- 41-43 Exhibition Street, Melbourne Vic 3000 AUSTRALIA
- Phone +61-3-654-2199 Fax +61-3-654-2384
(11) Universities with Degree Programs in Polymers
Undergraduate Programs:
- Case Western Reserve University
- UMass at Lowell
- U of Southern Mississippi
- Virginia Polytech
Graduate Programs:
- University of Akron
- Akron, OH 44325-0001
- Department of Polymer Engineering
- Dr. James White, Department Head
- Case Western Reserve University
- 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106
- Department of Molecular Science
- Dr. John Blackwell, Department Chair, Phone 216-368-4450
- Georgia Institute of Technology
- Atlanta, GA 30332
- School of Chemical Engineering
- Dr. A.S.Abhiraman, Program in Polymers Coordinator
- LeHigh University
- 111 Research Dr, Bethlehem, PA 18015
- Center for Polymer Science and Engineering
- Dr. Mohamed S. El-Aaser, Director
- University of Massachusettes at Amherst
- Amgerst, MA 01003
- Department of Polymer Science
- University of Massachusettes at Lowell
- 1 University Avenue, Lowell, MA 01854
- Department of Plastics Engineering
- Dr. Rudolph Deanin 508-934-3420 Graduate Coordinator for M.S.
- Dr. Ross Stacer 508-924-2420 for PhD
- Dr. Robert Nunn 508-934-3420 (chair) for Undergrad
- Prof. Stephen Driscoll 508-934-3420 for night school Undergrad
- Dr. Stanley Israel 508-934-3650 (chair) for Joing PhD in
- Polymer Science/Plastics Engineering
- University of Michigan
- Ann Arbor, MI 48109
- Macromolecular Science and Engineering Program
- Dr. Frank Filisko, Graduate Committee Chair
- Raleigh, NC 27695-7905
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Department Head: Ruben Carbonell
- Graduate Coordinator: Carol Hall
- contact: Chris McDowell, (919)515-4701
- e-mail:
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- Polytechnic University of Brooklyn
- Six Metrotech Center, Brooklyn, New York 11201
- Prof Eli Pearce or Allan S. Myerson, Phone 718-260-3620
- E-mail
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- San Jose State University
- San Jose, CA 95192
- Department of Chemistry
- Dr. Gerald Selter, Graduate Advisor
- Univ. of Southern Mississippi
- Hattiesburg, MS 39406
- Department of Polymer Science, College of Science & Technology
- Dr. Robert Lochhead, Department Head, Phone 601-266-4868
- University of Tennessee
- Knoxville, TN 37996
- Departmen of Materials Science & Engineering
- Dr. J.E. Spruiell, Department Head
- Virginia Polytechnic and State University (also VPI or Virginia Tech)
- Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Dr. Garth Wilkes, Chairman, 120 Patton Hall
(12) Publications of Interest on Polymers
All publications are monthly unless noted otherwise.
- Injection Molding Magazine (Abbey Communications)
- 3400 East Bayaud Avenue, Suite 230, Denver, CO 80209
- Phone 303-321-2322 Fax 303-321-3552
- Editorial Contact Online I.D.:
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or
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- ISSN 1071-362X
- Journal of Polymer Science - Polymer Physics Edition (ACS)
- Journal of Polymer Science - Polymer Chemistry Edition
- Makromoleculare Chemie
- Macromolecules (ACS Journal)
- Modern Plastics (McGraw-Hill)
- 1221 6th Avenue, New York, NY 10020
- Phone 212-512-6242 Fax 212-512-6111
- Editorial Comment Online I.D.:
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- Modern Plastics International (McGraw-Hill)
- Plastics Compounding (Advanstar)
- (no longer being published ? May return)
- Plastics Design Forum (Advanstar) (Bi-Monthly)
- (no longer being published ?)
- Plastics Engineering (SPE Publication)
- 14 Fairfield Drive, Brookfield, CT 06804-0403
- Phone 203-775-0471 Fax 203-775-8490
- ISSN 0091-9578
- (Note: Regional SPE Chapters and SPE Special Interest Divisions
- tend to have quarterly publications of their own)
- Plastics News (Crain Communications)
- 1725 Merriman Road, Akron, OH 44313-5251
- Phone 216-836-9180 Fax 216-836-2322
- ISSN 1042-802X
- Plastics Technology (Bill Communications)
- 355 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10010
- Phone 212-592-6570 Fax 212-592-6579
- Editorial Comment Phone: 212-592-6573
- ISSN 0032-1257
- Plastics World (PTN Publishing)
- Phone 516-845-2700 Fax 516-845-7109
- 445 Broad Hollow Road, Melville NY 11747
- ISSN 0032-1273
- Polymer (a research Journal)
- Polymer Composites (SPE Publication)
- Polymer Engineering and Science (SPE Publication)
- Polymer Processing and Rheology (SPE Publication)
Other publications with frequent Plastics/Polymers articles:
- Appliance (Dana Chase)
- 1110 Jorie Boulevard, CS 9019, Oak Brook, IL 60522-9019
- Phone 708-990-3484 Fax 708-990-0078
- Editorial I.D.:
This e-mail address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it
or
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- ISSN 0003-6781
- Design News (Cahners)
- 275 Washington Strees, Newton, MA 02158
- Phone 617-964-3030 Fax 617-558-4402
- Editorial Comment Online I.D.: DN@cahners
- Machine Design (Penton Publishing)
- 1100 Superior Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44114-2543
- Phone 216-696-7000 Fax 216-621-8469
- ISSN 0024-9114
(Polylinks has an extensive catalog of palstics publications at http://www.polymers.com/polylink/subs/polpub.html)
(13) Commercial Polymer Producers, Compounders, and Distributors
(This section is now a separate appendix with phone contact numbers in Appendix A.)
(14) Books on Polymers and Polymer Processing
This is a very brief sampling of some texts on polymer science, processing, properties and applications. SPE, McGraw Hill, Van Nostrand Reinhold, and John Wiley and Sons all have catalogs of available books on these subjects).
- Plastic Engineering Handbook of the Society of the Plastics Industry, Michael L. Berrins, Ed. (Van Nostran Reinhold, pub, c 1991, 845p.) ISBN 0-442-31799-9, LCCCN 90-22784
- Polymeric Materials and Processing, Jean-Michael Charrier, (SPE, pub, c 1990, 650p.) ISBN 0-19-520854-4
- Plastics: How Structure Determines Properties, Geza Gruenwald (SPE , pub, c 1992, 352p.) ISBM 3-446-16520-7
- Principals of Polymer Systems" Rodriguez (McGraw Hill, pub)
- Fundamental Principles of Polymer Materials, Rosen (John Wiley and Sons, pub) ISBN 0-471-08704-1
- Plastic Part Design for Injection Molding - An Introduction Robert A. Malloy (SPE, pub, c. 1994, 460p.) ISBN 1-56990-129-5
- Designing with Plastics and Composites, a Handbook, D.V. Rosato and D.P. DiMattia (SPE, pub, c. 1991, 977p.) ISBN 0-442-00133-9
- Plastics Polymer Science and Technology, Mahendra D. Baijal, Ed. (John Wiley & Sons, pub, c. 1982, 945p.) ISBN 0-471-04044-4
- A catalog with many good text on various polymer/plastics subjects is available from SPE, in the US: Phone 203-775-0471 (Brookfield, CT), in Europe: Phone 32-0-2-774-9630 (Brussels, Belgium)
(15) Acknowledgements
Jim Coffey, Dr. Ulrich Seitz, Ramesh Lakshmi Narayan, David O Hunt, Jeff Vavasour, George D Ryerson, Abe Verghis,
This e-mail address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it
, Dave Ingram, Mike Greenfield, Sami Mohammed, Paul D. Whaley, Tom Brady, Bob Hutchins, Ed Stokes, Larry Dodd, Mike Stewart, Russell Schulz, David Bick, Tony Foiani, Mike Pollard, Steve Baxter, Tony Tweedale, Kevin Patterson, Thomas Pierce, Stephen DeFosse
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